Winter Skills Mountaineering Course Notes

So you've had your Winter Mountaineering Course here in the Sierra Nevada with us. Want to refresh a few things?

IMPORTANT! These notes are designed to be a quick reference guide to supplement and refresh the information covered on your course with Spanish Highs. If you require more detailed knowledge and information please refer to the recommended reading list at the end of these notes

Kitting Out For Winter

In the harsh and severe conditions that generally prevail in winter there is little margin for error. These conditions will make even the simplest and smallest tasks very difficult. These notes are designed with this in mind, so having your equipment organised can make life much easier. Most of this preparation can be done BEFORE you start your hill walk.

Prepare written checklist of essential equipment prior to leaving home and ensure everything is packed
Organised packing system for your rucksack and pockets so you know where things are

Essential winter equipment

Map (small and compact with waterproof cover)
Compass (essential for escape in poor visibility)
Watch Whistle (though I've never used one!!!!!!)
Torch
Day rations
Winter boots
Warm wicking trousers
Waterproof over trousers
Wicking base layer top
Insulating mid-layer top
Waterproof, breathable outer jacket
Warm hat
Warm under gloves
Gaiters - although we don't use in the Sierra Nevada
Waterproof over gloves
Ice axe
Crampons
First aid kit
Survival bag
Goggles/sunglasses
Emergency food
Rucksack (of sufficient size so items are not hanging from outside)
Other items to consider depending on snow/weather conditions: GPS/Avalanche transceivers/Snowshoes/Skis

Clothing

This is very much down to personal preference and how much you are prepared to spend but there are some points to bear in mind :-

Your outer-layer must be WATERPROOF / WINDPROOF / ALLOW WATER VAPOUR TO ESCAPE.
Body heat is conducted outwards through layers of clothin g to the surface; the speed at which this happens is a critical point for survival in the mountains
Water conducts heat 25 times more effectively than air. It also can hold over 3000 times more heat than air. Wet clothing can therefore turn a human into an amazingly effective refrigerator
Cotton and silk can retain many times their own volume in water and take ages to dry and are therefore a BAD choice of fabric for winter
Nylon pile and modern spun synthetics retain their structure when wet and dry quickly. Therefore a GOOD choice
Polypropylene underwear acts like a wick to water and transfers moisture from the skin to outside layers. This maintains a dry layer next to the skin. GOOD choice
The harder you work, the less insulation you need to keep warm so the ability to adjust the insulative properties of your mid-layers is important. This is best achieved by multi-layers of clothing, which can be removed or replaced as required
Up to 1/3 of your entire body heat can be lost through your head

Boots

Do not rush into the purchase of winter boots because not only your comfort, but also your safety will depend on them. Seek out an experienced store assistant who can ensure that the boots you purchase are adequate for the use you intend. Here are some points to bear in mind :-

A comfortable fit (i.e. not too tight) is essential to avoid cold penetrating into the foot
Loose boot make the use of crampons very tiring and the increased friction can cause blisters. Some movement of the heel is normal and to be expected though (approx 1mm is OK)
Design of your boots must be compatible with your crampons. (Take your boots with you when you purchase your crampons)
Leather boots must be of high quality and made from unsplit leather to provide water resistance, insulation, stiffness and general durability
The sole must be stiff in order to kick steps in hard snow and ice without injuring your toes. Also stiff boots provide a more stable base for crampons
Consider the purchase of plastic boots for high altitude mountaineering because the insulating properties of the separate inner-boot are far superior to those achievable by an insulated leather boot

The Ice Axe

This is the basic tool of a winter mountaineer. The length of the shaft is determined by the use to which it will be put. A general mountaineering axe will be between 55cm to 65cm long. A good guide is to hold the ice axe loosely by your side at arms length. The axe spike should be approx level with your ankle.

Ice axe wrist loop

The axe may be fitted with a sliding wrist loop or a loop made from a long tape threaded through the hole in the head - adjusted so it is taut when the axe is held just above the spike.

Advantages of wrist loop -

If you accidentally drop your axe, it remains attached to your hand
It can relieve strain on your arm when pulling up on an axe
Axe can be suspended from wrist, thereby freeing your hand

Disadvantages of wrist loop -

it can cause problems when getting into the self-arrest position
your axe will bounce around probably stabbing you several times in a tumble fall (wear your helmet!)
it is necessary to change the wrist loop from hand to hand, often over bulky gloves, every time you change direction (in order to keep the axe in the uphill hand)

N.B. A cunning plan to prevent the last problem is to attach your axe to yourself with a one metre cord or tape to your harness karabiner.

Carrying the Axe

Carry the axe in the UPHILL hand.

The generally preferred method (and the one which is generally taught) is to carry the axe with the adze facing forwards. This is the natural position from which to move to the self-arrest position

BUT One school of thought states that it is more comfortable during prolonged use to rest the heel of your hand on the adze while holding the pick forwards. The IMPORTANT thing is that your axe is IN YOUR HAND and not in your rucksack from the first moment that you step onto snow (even if it is only a small patch of snow)

BECAUSE YOU DON'T KNOW WHEN YOU ARE GOING TO FALL - an accidental slip is, by its very nature, unexpected.

Self-Belay

Be prepared and ready at all times when moving on ANY snow slope
Plunge the axe, spike first, vertically into the snow as far as it will go while the other hand grabs the shaft at the snows surface and takes most of the weight
Kick your feet into the snow to give additional braking and to help regain balance
Remember The longer it takes to stop, the LESS likely it will be that you slide will be halted by ice-axe arrest techniques

Ice axe braking (Self-arrest) Basic Position

One hand on head of axe, the other hand on the spike
Spike covered with your hand to protect your body and to stop it catching on the snow or rocks
Axe held diagonally across your upper body with the adze tucked into the hollow below your collar bone- covered spike by your opposite side
To brake, apply shoulder and arched upper body weight onto the axe head to drive the pick into the snow/ice
Knees apart
Legs bent to prevent the front points of your crampons catching the ground and causing you to somersault
Turn your face away from the pick to avoid ice splinters in your eyes

Crampons

Fitting

The type of boot must match the type of crampon
The buckle should be to the outside of the foot
Strap-on crampons - Heel in first, toe in second
Step- in crampons - Toe in first, heel in second
Tight fitting - As a test, crampon should stay on your foot with the strap undone
No gap between boot sole and crampon
Practice putting them on wearing gloves and also in the dark

Use of crampons

Put them on while still on 'safe' ground
Remember STANCE - feet hip width apart, imagine a 6 inch 'no go' area around each foot
Flex ankles so ALL downward points bite
DON'T stamp or drag your feet - develop a technique of placing them firmly and confidently with each step
Ensure clothing is tidy around ankles NO baggy trousers!
Check each other's crampons throughout the day

'French' technique.

Ascending

Feet FLAT on level or gentle slopes
As slope gets steeper- turn toe to point across the slope eventually pointing toe slightly downhill on steeper slopes.
Zigzag on steep slopes
TO TURN - Plant axe in snow Place BOTH hands on head of axe. Turn whilst facing UP the slope

Descending

Face down slope
Bend knees and position weight over or slightly behind heels (the weight of your pack will have some bearing on this position)
Place feet positively
Use ALL downward facing points

Hybrid/American Technique - Ascend as above but with one foot flat and one toe into the slope.

Front pointing

This is necessary on very steep slopes

Face into slope
Feet horizontal so front FOUR points go into snow/ice. It may be necessary to lower your heel on almost vertical slopes in order to achieve this
Feet hip width apart
Flex at the knees

Balling - up

This happens in WET snow conditions when snow builds up in your boot treads. It can be avoided by wearing anti-balling plates. In an emergency anything to form a smooth barrier between your sole and the wet snow would do e.g. plastic bag! Snow can be removed by tapping boot regularly with your axe.

Avalanche Awareness

Digging a Snow Pit

Location should have the same aspect as the suspect slope but be free from danger
Initial test by ramming axe through the snow pack you may find resistance at a hard layer
Dig a pit down to the ground or to the base layer of old snow
Smooth the back wall with a glove to make it easy to examine

Do five point test on the back of wall to examine

Hardness : penetration by objects

gloved fist soft
gloved fingers
single finger
axe pick / spike / compass edge
knife blade hard

Wetness : the ability to make snowballs

snow too dry to make snowball dry
forms dry snowball
snowball from which a few drops of water can be squeezed
much water can be squeezed
slush wet

ABRUPT changes between adjacent layers would suggest an instability in the snow pack and therefore a HIGH risk of avalanche. Gradual changes between the layers are probably safAlso, differences in the size of crystals in adjacent layers, as well as spaces between layers, icy crusts and layers of loose, unbonded crystals should also be regarded as possible sources of danger.

Warning signs - Snow pack

Avalanche activity
Fresh avalanche debris
Snow cracking or easily breaking away in blocks underfoot
Signs of snow-pack instability at test sites

Warning signs - terrain

Slopes between 30 to 40 degrees (most prone)
Lee slopes and wind-sheltered gulleys
Cornice build-up
Previous avalanche paths and debris
Natural terrain traps

Warning signs - weather

Heavy snowfall
Wind loading on lee slopes
Sudden rise in temperature
Rain and warm winds soon after snowfall
Prolonged periods of VERY warm or VERY cold weather
Solar warming

DON'T FORGET the 'human' factor. Inexperienced climbers/skiers above you can unwittingly trigger an avalanche.

Survival Tips If YOU get caught

Shout to let someone know
Try to escape to the side
Discard kit such as ice axe, ski-poles etc (these may remain on surface and give a clue as to your position for searchers)
Attempt to stay on the surface by rolling or using a 'swimming' action.
As avalanche slows, thrust your hands, feet, body to surface fighting with all your effort
As you stop, quickly try to create a breathing space around your face
Once movement has stopped DON'T PANIC conserve energy and air

If someone else is caught

Keep them in sight and note their last position
Check for further avalanche
Shout to anyone nearby for help - use your mobile if you have one
If in a group, consider appointing a lookout for further danger and plan YOUR escape route should there be another avalanche
Mark where victim last seen - Conduct transceiver search if you are using them
Search for surface clues
Systematic probe line searc - You are the victim's only real chance of survival
KEEP SEARCHING

Snow Belays - Use and suitability

Belaying on snow

Snow is soft and therefore does not have the certainty of rock
Rock anchors and belays should always be used if available in preference to snow belays
It is highly unpredictable - Need to adopt system of belaying to avoid 'shock-loading' the anchor

Indirect belay

Ideal for snow because the belayer can provide a dynamic arrest by controlling the braking force applied to the rope
Reduces impact on the belayer and the belay
Stance must be stable and cut well down the slope and directly below the belay a pull in the wrong direction on snow can render the belay useless
Consider a sitting position with slots cut for legs

Ice Axe anchors

These are useful in a wide range of snow conditions. How to use the axe will depend on the various layers within the snow cover and how to take best advantage of them.

Horizontal axe anchor

The benefits of this are that it is quick and effective and no additional equipment needs to be carried

Cut a slot with the adze across the slope and to a depth of 20-30cm (this will depend on snow conditions- the softer the snow, the deeper the slot)
Cut a vertical slot to form a 'T' shape extending down slope about 2m, the upper end of the vertical should be the same depth as the horizontal slot, it then tapers out towards the surface
Attach a sling using a clove-hitch to the shaft of an axe at the balancing point
Place the axe pick down in the horizontal slot ensuring it is hard up against the front wall of the slot and position the sling in the vertical slot
Pack snow on top of the axe taking care not to disturb the structure of the snow in front of the axe
Attach karabiner and belay rope in the normal way
Must be a 'downward' pull otherwise the axe can pop out

Reinforced axe

The horizontal axe is reinforced by driving a second axe vertically into the snow directly in front of the buried axe and through the clove-hitch
Reduces possible movement of the horizontal axe
Ideal when there is a layer of harder snow immediately above or below the horizontal axe

'T' Axe

Differs from the reinforced axe because the sling is attached to the vertical axe
Vertical axe is placed BEHIND the horizontal axe
Ensure the clove-hitch is pushed as far down the shaft as it will go
Ideal where there is a firm layer of snow near the surface for the horizontal axe to but up against

Standing axe (stomper) belay

NOT suitable as a main belay. Used when speed is important in ascent or descent such as checking out a gulley or safeguarding a second over an awkward icy step
Dig out a flat stance in the snow large enough for both feet
Clip a screwgate karabiner to the eye in the axe head
Pass the rope through this to the belayer who takes up a standing position facing outwards with one instep over the adze and the other over the pi
Rope is passed across the shoulder on the 'dead' side
In the event of a fall, part of the load is taken by the axe and part is transmitted to the belayer causing downward pressure on the axe-head, which, in turn, increases its stability

Boot-axe belay

Very much like stomper as a way of safeguarding descent, it is an excellent method of lowering

Ideal in high winds as the body position of the belayer is closer to the ground and more balanced
Axe is placed vertically into the snow next to your right boot running in a line with your shin with pick facing backwards
Leave about a boot height of axe out of the snow
Rope is run from behind the belayer, between the legs, around the head of the axe from back to front and down to the climber
Belayer leans on the axe with his right hand, gripping rope from between his legs with his left ha
When load is applied the axe is pulled against the boot
Friction can be varied by movement of the left hand

Dead Man anchor

Works in ALL kinds of snow, particularly in poorly consolidated snow where other methods offer little or no security
Can be used as a main belay
Correct placement is crucial and it must be tested before use
Placed in snow at 40 degree angle to the slope
Care must be taken to ensure there is a downward pull on this anch
Stance must be at least 3m from this anchor to ensure that the internal angle between the plate and the wire does not exceed 50 degrees

Snow bollard

An option for belaying in VERY soft snow as long as bollard is reinforced
Size of bollard depends on softness of snow i.e. softer the snow, larger the bollard will have to be? Recommend 1m in diameter in hard snow to 3m in soft snow
Should be horseshoe rather than round
Channel should be about 30cm deepPad the back of the bollard with kit to prevent the rope cutting in
Sitting stance below the bollard is ideal with rope belayed round waist